Byzantine art

The currents of Late Byzantine culture, shaped by foreign conquest of Byzantine lands, diplomatic marriage, travel, and international trade, are reflected in the wealth of surviving portraits from the Late Byzantine sphere. Throughout the empire’s long history, donors, authors, and the ruling elite chose to commemorate themselves in portraits in all media, including monumental mosaic and fresco, miniature painting, sculpture and coinage. This tradition continued into the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, both in Byzantium and in its neighboring states, with the majority of portraits surviving in miniature and monumental painting.Traditions for representing the authority and the prestige of the Byzantine emperor were adopted not only by the Byzantine emperors of the Palaiologan dynasty, ruling from the ancient capital of Constantinople. They were also taken up by rulers in the provincial Byzantine states of Epiros (their capital in Arta, Greece), and Trebizond on the Black Sea (modern Trabzon, Turkey). These provincial Byzantine rulers in Arta and Trebizond vied for power and prestige with the emperor in Constantinople. The Byzantine imperial portraits illustrating this essay—in miniature painting and in sculpted gold—represent the ruler wearing the imperial crown, or stemma, with hanging jewels and pearls; the gemmed loros, or stole, over a long red or purple tunic; and imperial footwear, which were dyed in red or purple as well. Red and purple were colors special to the Byzantine ruling family since the empire’s earliest foundation. Each of these Byzantine rulers carries the imperial scepter surmounted by a cross, a sign of his Christian faith, as well as a scroll or the imperial akakia, a pouch filled with earth, a symbol of his humility. In the late fourteenth-century portrait of the Byzantine ruler of Trebizond, he is joined by his wife, the empress Theodora. Theodora wears richly decorated, red garments embroidered in gold with a repeat pattern representing the double-headed eagle, one of the symbols adopted by the Late Byzantine imperium. The empress, like her husband, wears the imperial crown with hanging jewels and pearls, and in her left hand she carries an orb, symbolizing the couple’s earthly rule. The two imperial figures flank a bust portrait of Saint John the Baptist, the patron saint of the monastery to which they are making a significant donation, recorded in the scroll they hold and the very document upon which their portrait is painted. Numerous highly specialized ritual objects are required for the performance of the Orthodox Liturgy, and typically these were fashioned from the richest materials available, such as gold, silver, and copper. Although there are significant numbers of luxurious liturgical objects dating from the Early and Middle Byzantine periods, examples are fairly rare for the last centuries of the empire. This situation can be attributed to a general shortage of raw materials, consequentially leading to the melting down of both sacred and secular gold and silver objects to acquire bullion to strike currency. This occurred during periods of extreme economic crisis facing the state.

Most Late Byzantine liturgical objects that have survived are found in monastic treasuries, where they have been preserved through the centuries. Although a great deal of material has not survived, it is fortunate that numerous contemporary depictions of the celestial liturgy can provide us with further insight into these objects’ appearance and usage.

The corpus of extant liturgical objects either exhibits the continued development of Middle Byzantine forms, or displays increasing Western influence. This is not surprising, as Venice overtakes Byzantium as an exporter of luxury goods, and itself becomes the center of artistic innovation. Many of the liturgical implements required for the performance of the Orthodox liturgy parallel those used for the Catholic Mass—the paten for the bread of the liturgy; the chalice for wine; and censers for burning incense. Another object used in both the East and West would be rhipidia, a metal fan representing the tetramorph, or four-faced cherubim that hover around God’s throne. These fans frequently contain highly complex iconographic programs; they were placed at the end of long poles and held over the book of the Gospels as a gesture of respect, and also waved to keep insects away from the Eucharistic elements. Lighting devices fall under the rubric of liturgical implements. One of the most remarkable surviving examples in this category is a complete choros, or chandelier, comprised of twelve horizontal openwork strips, decorated with sphinxes. Each of these sections contains either four or six candleholders; numerous polykandela were suspended below the linked ring of strips, supported by openwork chains.

Activity:

Answer,

What are the key attributes of Byzantine art and architecture?

What was the inspiration of most of Byzantine art?

ReferenceThe Metropolitan Museum of Art (2000) Byzantium: faith and power. New York.